Reading Books Is Better Than Watching Tv free essay sample

Reading books is better than watching TV The appearance of book is thousands of years earlier than the invention of TV. And they didn’t disappear these years show they’re both valuable and they have their own advantages. However, I think reading books is better than watching TV in most ways. Firstly, reading books is alternative. Especially when you are studying on an exact subject, you can choose books which are exactly about your subject. That means you can get quite a lot of useful and exhaustive information easily in no time. Sometimes the internet can’t even do that. When you want to read a book for relaxing, you can choose the book which you’re interested in. Furthermore, if you have a book, you could read it again and again, until you fully understand or enjoy it. In addition, you can mark the important points you think to make it more logical or add some notes beside it to retain the inspiration the book brings to you. We will write a custom essay sample on Reading Books Is Better Than Watching Tv or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page However, TV doesn’t enable you to do such meaningful things. You can’t choose what you watch. And once you find a piece of useful detail fortunately, if you don’t remember or understand it, there’s no second chance for you to watch it again. Secondly, books are easy to carry. You only need light and air, and books can be read anywhere. Reading books in trains, buses or any leisure time is always the best choice for both relaxing and during away time. Actually you get spiritual nutrition as well. Spiritual nutrition is as important as physical nutrition. If you don’t get spiritual nutrition, you’re only a body without a spirit. Your time is also easier to manage, since every second can be used to read books. No time will be waste any more. With the appearance of electrical books nowadays, the advantages of books are enlarging further. They are much lighter. Carrying a large amount of books is also a small case. And most importantly, they’re good for your eyes. What’s more, reading books can enrich our general knowledge and broaden our vocabulary. Books are a form of the beauty of words. Many new and fascinating words will be encountered you while you’re reading. Your writing skills will be improved unconsciously, and the same with the accumulation of knowledge. The more the read, the more intelligent you will be. Gorky said, books are the stepping stones to human progress. However, in most of the interesting TV programs, they use informal language. Besides, wherever you read a book, whenever you read a book, its contents won’t change with the time or place, just like I can read English books in China. So collecting books is not only a hobby, you’re building your own information bank at the same time. You can reread your favorite books at home or get reliable information quickly. And that’s also why every country, every city, every community, every school has a library. The power of books is inconceivable. I believe most people hate the advertisements on TV. Moreover, they always appear before or during the climax of a program. And attractive TV programs always broadcast a part of it every week. So if you, unfortunately, miss a part of it, it’s really a pity. Books treat us more fairly. There are no ads, no waiting, and you won’t miss any parts of it. Many people said the greatness of TV is that it has images and sounds. I agree with that. However, on the other hand, the images and sounds may also lock our opinion and imagination. Words always left us endless fancy. Every reader has their own character, just like there are a thousand Hamlets in a thousand peoples eyes. It’s quite wonderful, isn’t it? In conclusion, books are perfectly suitable for both study and entertainment since it has selectivity, portability , stability, literariness and renewability. And they’re also the shortcomings of TV. So reading books is better than watching TV in most ways, and that’s why books’ status is unfailing in human civilisation. Enjoy swimming in the ocean of books from now on!

Lockes Government essays

Lockes Government essays The Declaration of Independence, written by Thomas Jefferson, and The Second Treatise on Civil Government by John Locke, are two similar works. Lockes work seems to have had an influence on Jefferson when he wrote the Declaration of Independence. Both works were written on government, what it should and should not be. Locke brings the view that the state exists to preserve the natural rights of its citizens. When governments fail in that task, citizens have the rightand sometimes the dutyto withdraw their support and event to rebel. Locke maintained that the state of nature was a happy and tolerant one, that the social contract preserved the preexistent natural rights of the individual to life, liberty, and property, and that the enjoyment of private rights the pursuit of happiness led, in civil society, to the common good. Lockes form of government is simple, yet confusing. Lockes government is broken down into four main areas, the State of Nature ( SN ), the State of War ( SW ), Civil Society ( CS ), and Political Society ( PS ). Locke begins by recognizing the differences between power, in general, and political power in particular. Locke believes political power to be, the power of a magistrate over a subject. (2) The subject remains under the magistrates rule by choice. This brings about the State of Nature. The SN is a state of perfect freedom, no one is controlling others and no one is being controlled, everyone is equal. Locke comes to say that the only way someone can rule over us is if we let them. By doing this we are not abandoning our SN, but remaining in it. It is ones choice to let another preside over them. Our SN is threatened though because we do not have complete control, therefore we come into the State of War. Under SW we have taken away others SN or given up our own. For us to get it back we ...

Business-hospitality and tourism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Business-hospitality and tourism - Essay Example In early days, where ships used to be the primary means of transport, Fremantle was used as the gateway to Australia. Various immigrants and explorers from across the globe entered Australia via this route and settled there. However, with the passage of time and development of newer means of transport such as air travel, the significance of Fremantle as a tourist destination changed drastically. Although the port city retained its prominence in the subsequent years, mostly on account of the role it played during the America’s Cup in the year 1987. It has an old world charm to it owing to the various historical structures, the picturesque locales overlooking the Swan River, old historical architectures and the wide cultural diversity. This unique quality / charm of the place sets it apart from the other popular tourist destinations. The port is highly active and has a huge fishing fleet and container ships which ensures a rich and vibrant lifestyle making it a favourite tourist spot. Due to the large number of people who immigrated to the port in the early years, the city has a cosmopolitan culture, which is still retained and preserved by the residents (City of Fremantle, 2011). Figure1: Fremantle – Ariel view Source: Wikipedia II. ... Some of the other key areas of attraction include the Roundhouse Whalers Tunnel, Fremantle Chocolate Factory, Fremantle Prison & Museum, Western Australian Maritime Museum, the Fremantle Arts Center, Fremantle markets, Fremantle town hall, and the Carnac Island etc among various others (Stayz.com.au, 2011). Tourist Attractions: The Fremantle Fishing Boat Harbour is a working harbour which is lined up with a variety of waterfront restaurants which offer spectacular views of the Indian Ocean. These restaurants are a major tourist attractions, mainly on account of the wide variety of international cuisines served. Figure: The Fremantle Fishing Boat Harbour Source: http://www.australianexplorer.com/tourist_attractions/9028476/profile.htm The Roundhouse Whalers Tunnel is a purposely built gaol, to house those who broke the local laws. It was established in the year 1831 and has been preserved ever since, and today, it is a historical landmark. The view from the Roundhouse is spectacular, as it overlooks the Bathers Beach and the Indian Ocean. There is a tunnel just below the Roundhouse, called the Whalers Tunnel. This tunnel was built in the year 1837 to allow the members of the Fremantle Whaling Company an easy access between the Fremantle town and the Bathers Beach. There is a signal station which was used in olden days, to signify the correct time to the navigators of ships entering the town. Although this process of discontinued eventually by the year 1937 the structure still stands today signifying a bygone era (Fremantle.com.au, 2011). Figure: The Roundhouse and Whalers Tunnel Source: http://www.fremantlewa.com.au/accom_result1/round-house-and-whalers-tunnel/ The Fremantle Chocolate Factory is one of the most popular tourist attractions in the city. The factory is

Myth & Wrestling Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Myth & Wrestling - Essay Example 4The belief that fighting as many views wrestling is a preserve for men because again many belief women to be soft and not able to tolerate the physical exchange involved. 1.12. Overweight wresting Traditionally, overweight was not believed to be a major cause for worry in many traditions. 5In fact many are the cultures that associate body mass with being a well to do person and therefore lack of it was interpreted to mean starvation or 'not doing so well'. The underlying belief was that in order to gain weight, one had to be eating well and conversely, eating well meant that one was having enough to spend on food. Such society was simple and technological advancement had not caught up with the people, having enough food to put on the table implied that one was meeting their basic needs and therefore were well to do. Therefore overweight was something, which the society treasured and valued, and therefore those overweight or with much weight were considered fit for wrestling and the other culturally viable tasks associated with it. Today, the myth about wrestling still remains albeit with some little new meanings to it. 6The connotation attached to wrestling is one in which wrestlers are viewed as tough, by being tough or purporting to be tough the society sees in a wrestler a champion, someone who is dependable, one who can protect some one who can sire an offspring, capable of defense, toughness as depicted is a virtue. Wrestling is the epitome of power, authority and control. The above are achieved through cohesion, use of force, blackmailing and manipulation. Toughness is to be adored, to be revered and at the same time to be countered with an equal measure of... The author of the essay "Myth & Wrestling" begins with that myth is the hidden set of rules and conventions through which meanings, which are in reality specific to certain groups are made to seem universal and given for a whole society. Myth can serve to precipitate fear, to uphold status quo, to guide and serve as a road map towards cultural believes and practices. Wrestling, applied to myth can take the three different meaning so that several cultural values are attached to it. These may include masculinity as many cultures attach or connect masculinity to protectionism, the way wrestling is contacted makes clear that the society is agreeing to by spectating acts depicted in wrestling, whether fictional or real , in a wresting game, value of the masculinity the ingenuity with which wrestlers ruthlessly handle each other is a clear sign that, in wrestling there are deeper meanings. Just to emphasize masculinity, contesters are usually heavy and well build. Culturally a man underweight would never pass for wrestling auditions. It is almost un-ethic to even think about wrestling if one does not confer to the se values and standards. Myths for a long time has determined and chatted the way forward for man, this is evident in the way different meanings as embedded to different actions, tries and objects. Myths play and will continue to play a very positive role in the society. Currently the mystery in myth especially in wresting provides a better and deeper meaning which is essential to understand cultural meanings.

Violence Against Women (CASE) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Violence Against Women (CASE) - Essay Example The bystander program on violence against women emphasizes all members within the community play a role in ensuring violence against women does not occur. A bystander is the person who witnesses a situation and is neither the victim nor the perpetrator but in someway the person could make a difference if involved in the situation (Postmus, 2013). In many different cases, the bystander program has been found to prevent possible cases of different forms of possible violence. However, in prevention of violence against women, the bystander program has not produced effective results. Most cases of violence against women mainly occur at family level and therefore any bystander would find it difficult to into family matters. In most communities, the family setting recognizes the male as the head of the family and thus is some way justifies the m beating their wives (Davis, S. (2012). Despite this being a form of violence, which is illegal, the bystanders may find it difficult to interrupt or prevent it due the cultural justification in it and the respect for a family. Violence on women is often characterized by ill behavior and is seen as disciplinary action to the woman and hence it is difficult to differentiate between a violence case and intended disciplinary action on a wife (OToole, 2005). It is therefore in appropriate to consider a bystander program as a solution to curb violence on women. Bystander programs could be implemented effectively in other cases such as control of violence among students in a school. It could be effective in such as situation since all the people in the school are at an equal level. It could also be effective in a prevention of sexual violence in universities and college it could be effective in such cases since all the people belong to a similar level and sexual violence is easily identifiable. Various adjustments need to be made

Contributions of Functionalist Approaches to Translation

Contributions of Functionalist Approaches to Translation INTRODUCTION The 1980s saw the birth of a number of approaches to Translation Studies (TS henceforth) collectively termed functionalist, which brought about a paradigm shift in the system. This essay examines the strengths and weaknesses as well as the contributions of these functionalist approaches to the field of TS. Structurally, the essay starts with a brief historical overview of the approaches to translation before the advent of functionalist approaches. Then it discusses the major functionalist approaches, highlighting their major postulations and the criticisms against them, which will then be followed by a general summary of the various contributions of the various strands of functionalism. TRANSLATION STUDIES BEFORE FUNCTIONALISM Over the years, scholars have approached the discipline of Translation Studies from various angles largely depending on the dominant philosophy of the time and/or underlying conceptions of the nature of translation and how the translated text will be used (Schaeffner 2001: c5). However, one dilemma that has prevailed over the centuries is the decision on the best method of translating a text. This dilemma of the best method of translating is an age-old one. Jerome (395/2004: 24) expresses this dilemma thus: It is difficult, when following the lines of another, not to overshoot somewhere and arduous, when something is well put in another language, to preserve this same beauty in translationif I translate word by word, it sounds absurd; it out of necessity I alter something in the order or diction, I will seem to have abandoned the task of a translator. However, Jerome and indeed many other translator of his time end up not translating word by word. He quotes Cicero as observing that in his translation of Platos Protagoras and Xenophones Oeconomicus, that he kept their meanings but with their forms their figures, so to speak in words adapted to our idiom (395/2004: 23). He adds that except for the case of Sacred Scriptures, where the very order of the words is a mystery I render not word for word, but sense for sense (395/2004: 25) so as not to sound absurd in the target language. These scholars, including others like Nicolas Perrot DAblancourt (1640/2004), Martin Luther (1530) and John Dryden (1680/2004), may not be seen as translations scholars per se since they all had their respective vocations and translation was what they did in the passing. However, their views and comments formed the bedrock on which the field of translation studies was to be built. Linguistic-based approaches The argument over word by word or sense for sense translation prevailed over the centuries up till the 20th century when Jakobson (1959/2004) introduced the term equivalence in the literature and Nida (1964/2004) expands it by distinguishing between formal and dynamic equivalence. While formal equivalence aims at matching the message in the receptor language as closely as possible to the different elements in the source language, including the form and content, dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression, and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behaviour relevant within the context of his own culture (Nida 1964/2004: 156). According to Nida, the purposes of the translator to a large extent determine whether the translator should aim at formal equivalence or dynamic equivalence. One observes that these scholars are concerned with the correspondence between the target language and the source language and these approaches were thus collectively called linguistic approaches to translation. According to Saldanha (2009: 148), the term linguistic approaches to translation studies is used to refer to theoretical models that represent translation and/ or interpreting as a (primarily) linguistic process and are therefore informed mainly by linguistic theory. Translation studies was subsumed under applied linguistics and thus studied with methods developed in linguistics (Schaeffner 2001: 6). Other scholars that contributed to research in this area are Catford (1965) and House (1977/1981). Translation was seen as a transfer of information from one language to another, as an activity that affects just the two languages involved. Thus scholars were concerned with prescribing methods of translating from one language to the other in order to reproduce in the target langua ge a message that is equivalent to that of the source text. One such prescription was Vinay and Dabelnets (1958/2994) seven methods or procedures for translation: borrowing, calque, literal translation, transposition, modulation, equivalence and adaptation. The first three they call direct translations as they involve transposing the source language message element by element, while the last four they call oblique because they involve an upsetting of the syntactic order of the source language. One major shortcoming of linguistic approaches is that they do not take cognisance of the contribution of the context in which an expression is used to the understanding of the whole message or text. Schaeffner (2001: 8 9) observes that Studies conducted within a linguistic-based approach to translation concentrated on the systematic relations between units of the language systems, but often abstracted from aspects of their contextual use. A chosen TL-form may well be correct according to the rules of the language system, but this does not necessarily mean that the text as a whole appropriately fulfils its communicative function in the TL situation and culture. Working on the translation of the Bible, Nidas distinction between formal and dynamic equivalence introduced aspects of sociolinguistics and culture into translation studies. He says that any discussion of equivalence, whether formal or dynamic, must consider types of relatedness determined by the linguistic and cultural distance between the codes used to convey the message (1964/2004: 157). He declares that a natural translation or dynamic equivalence involves two principal areas of adaptation, namely, grammar and lexicon (2004: 163). However, his theory has been criticised for being restricted in application and scope as it appears to be meant mainly for Bible translations and to focus on just lexical and syntactic correspondence. A few years later, Koller (1979: 215f) proposes five categorisation of the concept of equivalence namely: textralinguistic facts/state of affairs (denotative equivalence); form of verbalisation, including connotations, style and (connotative equivalence); text norms and language norms (text-normative equivalence); TL-text audience (pragmatic equivalence); and specific aesthetic, formal , characteristic features of text (formal-aesthetic equivalence) (quoted in Schaeffner 2001: 9) This too receives a lot of criticisms which apparently inform its review by the author over the years. Pym (1997: 1) observes that four editions of Kollers book Einfà ¼hrung in die ÃÅ"bersetzungswissenschaft (Introduction to Translation Studies/Science) has been published as at 1995, with an article summarising the main points appearing in English in Target. Indeed the concept of equivalence was (and still is) highly controversial even to this day. Textlinguistic approaches In reaction to the apparent rather restricted linguistic scope of these approaches, some scholars then argue for a text-linguistic or pragmatic approach to translation, whereby the whole text is seen as the unit of meaning and translation, as against the lexicon and grammar which was the focus of linguistic approaches. Katharina Reisss (1971/2004) text-typology is seminal in this respect, being about the first to introduce into TS a consideration of the communicative purpose of translation (Munday 2008: 74). According to Reiss, the communicative function of a text in its source culture determines its function in the target culture and how it will be translated. She classifies text-type into informative (communicates content), expressive (communicates artistically organised content) and operative (communicates content with a persuasive character) (Reiss 1971/2004: 171). In her view, a text that is adjudged informative should be translated in such a way that the same content in the sou rce text is transferred into the target text; an expressive text should retain the artistic and creative features of the source text in the target text; while an operative source text should inform a target text with a similar or analogous effect on the target audience. In situations where a text exhibits features of more than one text-type, the translator should concern themselves with foregrounding the overriding text-type and back-grounding the rest if the need so arises. Reiss does a lot to stress the importance of text-variety or genre in translation studies. She observes that genre conventions are culture specific and the translator should consider the distinctions in genre conventions across culture so as not to endanger the functional equivalence of the TL text by naively adopting SL conventions (1971/2004: 173). Neubert (1985) and its sequel co-authored with Gregory Shreve (1992) have done a lot to emphasise the importance of genre analysis in translation studies. In the pr eface to Translation as Text, they observe the decline in influence of linguistics in translation studies and the movement towards interdisciplinarity: Translation studies has abandoned its single-minded concern with strictly linguistic issues. It has been invigorated by new ideas from other disciplines. Translation scholars no longer hesitate to adopt new ideas from information science, cognitive science, and psychology. (Neubert and Shreve 1992: vii) Scholars that favour this approach focus a lot on setting up prototypes of genres, or as Corbett (2009: 291) puts it, these scholars focused on the descriptions of highly predictable, ritual, transactional texts, many of which seem banal in nature like Swales (1990) on reprint requests and Eggins (1994) on recipes. Thus scholars tried to identify parallel texts across languages and cultures by doing a systematic comparison of genre exemplars in both the source culture and the target culture (Schaeffner 2001: 11). Schaeffner also notes elsewhere that [g[enre conventions are determined by culture and, thus, prone to constant change (2000: 222). This enables the translator to adapt the text to the conventions of the receptor or target culture. Thus scholars operating within a text-linguistic approach to translation believe that a translation goes beyond language to cultural considerations. FUNCTIONALIST APPROACHES The second half of the 20th century witnessed some paradigm shift in translation studies, especially with the publication in German of Katharina Reiss and Hans Vermeers Foundation for a General Theory of Translation and Justa Holz-Manttaris Translatorial Action: Theory and Method, both in 1984. These set the pace for what is later known as functionalist approaches to translation, approaches that see translation as a communicative action carried out by an expert in intercultural communication (the translator), playing the role of a text producer and aiming at some communicative purpose (Nord 2001: 151). Functionalist approaches generally believe that the function of a text in the target culture determines the method of translation. They are said to have developed in opposition to the equivalence paradigm of the linguistic-based approaches which see the source text as what determines the nature of the target text. Using the communication scheme of SOURCE-PATH-GOAL, they accentuate the importance of the target text as the goal of the translational process. One of the major proponents, Vermeer (1987: 29) declares that linguistics alone is not effective because translation itself is not merely nor primarily a linguistic process, and that linguistics has not yet formulated the right questions to tackle our problems (cited in Nord 1997: 10). Quite a good number of translation scholars subscribe to functionalism like Vermeer (1978, 1989, 1996; Reiss and Vermeer 1984, 1991; Nord 1997, 2005; Holz-Manttari 1984, 1993; Honig 1997; Honig and Kussmaul 1982, 1996; among many others. Following are some of the major strands of functionalism. Skopostheorie The most popular among the functionalist approaches, skopos theory was developed in Germany by Hans Vermeer in 1978 in dissatisfaction with the linguistic-based approaches to translation. He sees translation as an action governed by a skopos from Greek meaning purpose or aim. This purpose now determines how the translation is done. Vermeer argues that the source text is produced for a situation in the source culture which may not be the same in the target culture. It then follows that the translation should be produced to suit the purpose for which it is needed in the target culture: the source text is oriented towards, and is in any case bound to, the source culture. The target textis oriented towards the target culture, and it is this which ultimately defines its adequacy (Vermeer 1989/2004: 229). Reiss and Vermeer jointly published Translatorial Action: Theory and Method in 1984 to give what has been described as the general translation theory, sufficiently general, and sufficient ly complex, to cover a multitude of individual cases (Schaeffner 1998: 236). They see a text as an offer of information and translation as an offer of information existing in a particular language and culture to members of another culture in their language. They hold that the needs of the target text receivers determine the specification of the skopos and the selection made from information offered in the source text (Schaeffner 1998: 236). Thus translation goes beyond linguistic considerations to also encompass cultural issues. The question then arises: Who determines the skopos? According to Vermeer (1989/2004: 236), the skopos is defined by the commission and if necessary adjusted by the translator. Nord (1997:30) adds that the skopos is embedded in the translation brief, which means that the person initiating the translation invariably decides what the skopos is. She agrees with Vermeer that the skopos is often negotiated between the client and the translator. The skopos of a text in the source culture might be the same as the skopos of the translation in the target culture, but that is just one of the different purposes for which a text might be needed in a different culture as the purpose in the target culture might be different. Reiss and Vermeer (1984) call the situation where the source text function is the same as the target text function functional constancy, while for the other situation where both texts have different functions they say the text has undergone a change of function. Vermeer also gives two further rules: coherence rule and fidelity rule. Coherence rule stipulates that the target text must be sufficiently coherent for the target audience to understand given their assumed background knowledge and situational circumstances while the fidelity rule focuses on the intertextual relationship between the source text and the target text (Schaeffner 1998: 236). The nature of this intertextual coherence between the source text and target is however determined by the skopos. The theory of translatorial action This theory, proposed by Holz-Manttari, draws a lot from action theory and communication theory. An action is generally seen as doing something intentionally, and communication basically means transferring information from one entity to another. Holz-Mantarris theory then sees translation as transferring information embedded in one culture to receivers in another culture, and the translator is the expert saddled with the responsibility of this information transfer. Using concepts from communication theory, Holz-Mantarri identifies the players in the translatorial process: the initiator, the person in need of the translation; the commissioner, the person that contacts the translator; the source text producer or author; the target text producer, the translator or translation agency; the target text user, teachers for example; and the target text recipient, for example students in a target users class. She does a lot to emphasise the role played by these participants in the translationa l process. The need for a translation arises in situations where there is information in a particular culture that members of another culture do not have access to as a result of the cultural differences among the communities, or as Nord (1997: 17) puts it, situations where differences in verbal and non-verbal behaviour, expectations, knowledge and perspectives are such that there is not enough common ground for the sender and receiver to communicate effectively by themselves. Translation then is a process of intercultural communication aimed at producing a text capable of functioning appropriately in specific situations and contexts of use (Schaeffner 1998: 3). And since the focus is on producing functionally adequate texts, the target text should then conform to the genre conventions of the target culture. This makes the translator the expert in translatorial action, who determines what is suitable for the translatorial text operation and ensures the information is transmitted satisfactorily. One interesting aspect of this theory is the introduction of new terminologies into the literature. For example, instead of text, Holz-Mantarri prefers Botschaftstrà ¤ger, message carrier, a concept that broadens the traditional concept of text to include non-verbal aspects of communication thereby doing justice to the complexity of communicative processes (Martin de Leon 2008: 7). Other changes include Botschaftstrà ¤gerproduktion for text production and translatorisches Handeln for translate or translation. The principle of the necessary degree of precision This principle was developed by Honig and Kusmaul to provide a more detailed account of translation relevant decision-making processes as against the framework theory of translation (Honig 1997: 10). One of the outcomes of functionalist approaches is that the translator can give more information in the translation if the skopos requires that. An instance is making clear in a target text what is not so clear in the source text. However, it is not clear to what extent the translator can exercise this liberty. To this end, the principle stipulates that what is necessary depends on the function of the translation (Honig 1997: 10). Honig illustrates this in this rather long quote: the term public school implies such a large amount of culture-specific knowledge that it is impossible to render its meaning completely in a translation. Within a functionalist approach, however, the function of a word in its specific context determines to what degree the cultural meaning should be made explicit. In a sentence such as (my emphasis): (2a) In Parliament he fought for equality, but he sent his son to Eton. the translation will have to be different from translating the identical term Eton in the sentence: (3a) When his father died his mother could not afford to sent him to Eton any more. The following translations would be sufficiently detailed: (2b) Im Parlament kà ¤mpfte er fà ¼r Chancengleichheit, aber seinen eigenen Sohn schickte er auf eine der englischen Eliteschulen. (one of the English elite schools) (3b) Als sein Vater starb, konnte seine Mutter es sich nicht mehr leisten, ihn auf eine der teuren Privatschulen zu schicken (one of the expensive private schools). Of course, there is more factual knowledge implied in the terms Eton or public school than expressed in the translation, but the translation mentions everything that is important within the context of the sentence, in other words, the translation is semantically precise enough. (1997: 11) Here the translator does not aim at an exact or perfect target text, but a text that is sufficiently good enough for the situation. The translator provides as much (or less) information as the readers need as determined by the skopos. Christiane Nord Christiane Nord is one of the major proponents of functionalism. She agrees with Vermeer that the situation under which a target text is produced is different from that of the source text in terms of time, place (except for simultaneous interpreting), and sometimes medium. Thus the meaning of a text is found beyond the linguistic code, in the extratextual situation. In fact, she even stresses that meaning interpretation depends a lot on the personal experience of the text user: A text is made meaningful by its receiver for its receiver. Different receivers (or even the same receiver at different times) find different meanings in the same linguistic material offered by the text. We might even say that a text is as many texts as there are receivers of it. (2001: 152) Nord however has some reservations for the unrestricted freedom Reiss and Vermeer, and Holz-Manttari have given the translator to produce a target text of whatever form so long as it conforms to the skopos as directed by the client. To check this, she introduces the concept of loyalty which she defines as the responsibility translators have towards their partners: translators, in their role as mediators between two cultures, have a special responsibility with regard to their partners, i.e. the source text author, the client or commissioner of the translation, and the target text receivers, and towards themselves, precisely in those cases where there are differing views as to what a good translation is or should be. (Nord 2006: 33). Nord thus contends that the skopos is not the only determining factor in translation, that loyalty is necessary. Loyalty commits the translator bilaterally to the source text and target text situations: not to falsify the source text authors intentions (Nord 2005:32) and fulfilling the expectations of the target audience or explaining in a footnote or preface how they arrived at a particular meaning. Loyalty is different from fidelity or equivalence in that the latter refer to the linguistic or stylistic similarity between the source and the target texts, regardless of the communicative intentions involved while the former refers to an interpersonal relationship between the translator and their partners (2001: 185). Christiane Nord also elaborates on the possible range of functions a target text may have, different from that or those of the source text. She first distinguishes between documentary translation and instrumental translation. Documentary translation is such that aims at producing in the target language a kind of document of (certain aspects of) a communicative interaction in which a source-culture sender communicates with a source-culture audience via the source text under source-culture conditions (1997: 138); instrumental translation, on the other hand, aims at producing in the target language an instrument for a new communicative interaction between the source-culture sender and the target-culture audience. A documentary translation usually results in a target text with a meta-textual function or secondary level function according to House (1977). An instrumental translation may have the same range of functions as the source text, whereby it is said to be equifunctional; but if th ere are differences in the functions of both texts, the case is said to be heterofunctional. Nord also talks about homologous translation, also called creative transposition (Bassnet 2002: 24), where the target text represent the same degree of originality as the original in relation to the respective culture-specific corpora of texts. One other seminal input of Nords into functionalism is her call for an elaborate analysis of the source text before translation proper. Unlike Vermeer and Holz-Manttari who almost make the source text so invisible, Nord rather gives some attention to it since it is the provider of the offer of information that forms the basis for the offer of information formulated in the target text. She argues that the pre-translation analysis of the source text helps in deciding on whether the translation project is feasible in the first place, which source text units are relevant to a functional translation, and which strategy will best produce a target text that meets the requirements of the brief (Nord 1997: 62). Nord goes further to identify and categorise the kind of problems a translator might encounter pragmatic, convention-related, interlingual and text-specific and also steps to follow in the translational process. Schaeffner (2001) has done a critical review of Nords postulations (and indeed other functionalist approaches) and their applicability in practical translation. CONTROVERSIES SURROUNDING FUNCTIONALIST APPROACHES TO TRANSLATION Expectedly, functionalist approaches have received a lot of criticism, especially from scholars of the linguistic-based approaches, one of which is the definition of translation. Critics of skopos theory argue that not all target texts based on a source text can be called translations, that skopos theory makes no distinction between a real translation and adaptation or what Koller (1995) calls nontranslation. They argue that the supposed dethronement of the source text and focus on the target text (Newmark 1991; Schreitmuller 1994) subverts the intrinsic meaning of the translation. Pym (1997) argues in this light and supports Koller (1995) in upholding equivalence and calling on functionalists to distinguish between translation and nontranslation. However, functionalists view translation from a broader perspective, as any translational action where a source text is transferred into a target culture and language Nord 1997: 141). They see the linguistic-based definition as being restri ctive and in need of expansion. Linked to this is the supposed dethronement of the source text and emphasis on the skopos as the determining factor of how the translation is done. It is then argued that functionalism gives translators the freedom to produce any kind of target text and call it a translation. Pym (1991), for instance, accuses functionalists of producing mercenary experts able to fight under the flag of any purpose able to pay them (1991: 2). Nord responds to this by introducing the concept of loyalty, which restricts the liberty of the translator as they are now expected to be loyal to the source text author as well as other partners in the translational process. She also insists on an elaborate source text analysis before translation for a better understanding of both the source text and source culture which will then engender some high level coherence between the source text and the target text. One other controversy surrounding functionalism is the myriad of terminologies introduced and used differently, especially those by Holz-Manttarri. Indeed many of these criticisms still go on to this day. However, despite the various controversies surrounding the development and thrust of functionalist approaches, their contributions to the study of translation are remarkable. CONTRIBUTIONS OF FUNCTIONALIST APPROACHES TO TRANSALTION STUDIES One major contribution of this approach is that, according to Nord (1997: 29), it addresses the eternal dilemmas of free vs faithful translations, dynamic vs formal equivalence, good interpreters vs slavish translators, and so on. Thus a translation may be free of faithful or anything between these two extremes depending on its skopos or the purpose for which it is needed. The translator no longer has to always go back to the source text to solve translational problems, rather they base their translation on the function of the text in the target culture. Functionalist approaches liberate translation from theories that impose linguistic rules upon every decision (Pym 2010: 56). They recognise that the translation process involves more than languages involved and requires the consideration of these extra-textual and extra-linguistic factors for its actualisation. Thus they introduce the cultural dimension to translation studies and break the unnecessary recourse to the authority of the source text. While linguistics-based approaches may be said to be retrospective in that they look back at the source text as the model for the target text, functionalist approaches are seen as prospective in that they look forward to the function of the text in the target culture as the major determining factor for how the translation will be done. A retrospective translation operates a bottom-up process, works from source language elements and transfers the text sentence by sentence, or phrase by phrase. But a prospective translation operates a top-down process, starting on the pragmatic level by deciding on the intended function of the translation and asking for specific text-typological conventions, and for addressees background knowledge and their communicative needs ( Ouyang 2009: 104). Functionalist approaches are flexible and general enough to account for a wide range of translational situations. Talking about the theory of skopos theory for example, Schaeffner (2001: 15) observes that [t]his theory is presented as being sufficiently general to cover a multitude of individual cases, i.e. to be independent of individual languages, cultures, subject domains, text types and genres. Interestingly, the consideration of extra-textual factors in the translational process accentuates the multidisciplinary nature of translation studies. The introduction of text-typology and considerations of genre-conventions introduces elements of pragmatics, text-linguistics and culture studies into the discourse. So also is the belief that a text does not have a stable intrinsic meaning, but that meaning is affected by the subjective translator as well as by the cultural, historical, ideological and historical circumstances surrounding the production of the text (Schaeffner 2001: 12). Tied to the quality of flexibility mentioned above is functionalisms apparent accommodation of the shortcomings of some other translation theories. For example, Baker (2007) criticises the polysystem theory (Even-Zohar 1990) and Tourys (1995) theory of norms for encouraging analysts to focus on repeated, abstract, systematic behaviour and privileging strong patterns of socialization into that behaviour and for glossing over the numerous individual and group attempts at undermining dominant patterns and prevailing political and social dogma (Baker 2007: 152). She also expressed some dissatisfaction with Venutis dichotomies of foreignizing and domesticating strategies (Venuti 1993, 1995), also called minoritizing and majoritizing strategies (Venuti 1998), for, inter alia, reducing the intricate means by which a translator negotiates his or her way around various aspects of a text into a more-or-less straightforward choice of foreignizing versus domesticating strategy (Baker 2007: 152). However, these criticisms have been adequately taken care of by functionalist approaches whose methodology would not be seen as been that straitjacketed, with no room for flexibility. By their very nature, functionalist approaches bridge the gap between mere theorising and the practice of translation, as they suggest practical ways of going about translational problems. Before the advent of functionalist approaches, the translator is rarely noticed. Emphasis was on the source text and its supposed equivalent, the target text. No attention is paid to the identity or status of the translator in the translational process. On the one hand, the translator is seen as not being original, as merely performing a technical stunt (Honig 1985: 13) of transferring an original authors ideas into a different language. On the other hand, the translators identity is hidden when they produce texts that sound so fluent in the target culture as it they wer

Two Views of Affirmative Action Essay -- Affirmative Action Race Essay

Two Views of Affirmative Action "We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal†¦." Even before it became a nation, America was heralded as a land of equality. Thomas Jefferson's statement begs more than a few questions, one of which is: "How can we ensure equality to everyone?" Beginning in the late 1960s, the federal government provided an answer to this question in the form of affirmative action. In recent years, many people have called this policy into question. Interestingly, affirmative action is sometimes attacked by the people it helps, and defended by those it hurts. In particular, two recent essays demonstrate that people's race does not necessarily determine their beliefs on the issue of affirmative action. "Why I Believe in Affirmative Action" is by Paul R. Spickard, a white man who is defending affirmative action, while "A Negative Vote on Affirmative Action" is by Shelby Steele, an African-American who is attacking the program. When the two essays are considered as respon ses to each other, Steele's logical explanations of the effects and implications of affirmative action expose the flaws in Spickard's ethical arguments supporting it. Both authors structure their arguments to appeal to their respective audiences. Since Spickard's essay is written for Christianity Today, he makes a lot of ethical appeals that a Christian audience could easily relate to. Steele, on the other hand, is writing for The New York Times Magazine, so he relies on logic that would appeal to a more general audience. Spickard begins his ethical appeal by establishing his credibility through focusing on his support of affirmative action even though he has been denied employment because of the program. He says, "I a... ...demonstrating the absurdity of trying to make up for what our ancestors did. According to Steele, these attempts to pay for the wrongs of our ancestors grow out of a need "to impose on the world a degree of justice that simply does not exist." In other words, affirmative action seeks to correct wrongs that cannot be corrected because the people who were involved are no longer living. When Spickard's essay is examined alone, its arguments are quite convincing. However, Steele's essay effectively addresses the arguments of his opposition. As a result, his essay becomes much more effective than Spickard's, because he is able to point out all of the faults in Spickard's arguments. When these essays are read together and compared to each other, Steele's logic is much more convincing than Spickard's moral appeal, and exposes the flaws in the affirmative action program.

Happiness: The Key To Life Essay

Hap-pi-ness: the quality or state of being happy. One crucial standard for living is being able to be happy. Happiness can be found in an numerous amount of ways. It can be found by buying inanimate items that help us better our life or it can be found with communicating with someone. To truly reach full happiness you need to recognize that everything in your life if good and accept that you can be happy with individuals that help shape your life. Many people feel as if they are unable to live without many of their precious belongings but, some would be happy to give them up or throw them away. It is extremely difficult to look face to face to someone and find an acceptable answer to the question â€Å" Can happiness be bought? †. Achieving happiness can be a very simple thing ; for instance the life of a cat. Cats do not have many possessions / items yet they seem very happy and enjoy their lives. Cats have a reliable friend and are constantly loved by someone or another cat. They have everything to be happy so why shouldn’t they be? This can relate to humans because not many people have the same items or electronics as others yet they are happy with the simplest of things. As an example; homeless people receiving a meal on thanksgiving while others just think its another holiday, another family meal. People feel or believe that they can buy happiness but, think about how long that one Martins 2 item keeps/ makes you happy. You spent all your money on a new outfit but, you realize you have no one to see it, do you still feel happy? Or would you feel better at a friends house and hanging out. Think about this: You bought a movie and watch it three times. First time your â€Å" ROLF† rolling on the floor dieing of laughter, second time it funny and by the third time you done, sick of it. Or even when you buy a need game, you play a couple of time than something new, better , more expansive comes along. You never get tried of the simplest things in life, that is true happiness. For instance, my grandma comes over my house and makes me her special hot chocolate because she thinks I’m too skinny. It warms your stomach and makes you feel like special and thankful for everything. You can have all the things in the world but, you will never be happy if you do not have anybody to share it with. If you have no one you feel you can trust of call your true friend buying items will not help fill that void in your life.â€Å"True friends can not be bought at any store and love is not sold in a bottle† but, it can happen and bring you so much happiness. These are things you can get with your heart, even people that are extremely poor or in debt find happiness in the people they love and friends that truly care for them. It is crazy what effect money has. If you can not get happiness with it than isn’t even worth all the money in the entire universe. To be happy, many people need to come to the realization that everything that has occurred in the present or past happened for a logical reason and that’s it has happened in order to make you a better human being. It does not only make you a better person but make you see how well off you have it or can be able to have it. Even though certain events in life can be Martins 3 difficult at a certain moment, people need to realize that you can learn from your experiences and learn to take what is good out of it. In the end, certain situations will help many strive for happiness. Happiness is not free, you need to work and earn it to keep it. To exceed fully happiness people need to go through rough times and happy times as well. Many need to learn how to get the best out of their surroundings. Many things in life go wrong or not how you expected it would turn out but, that does not mean you need to live in fear. You need to live your life to the fullest and be happy, have fun even if things do not always go as planned. People say the best kind of happiness you can feel is when you are in love with someone and you know that they love you back. Whether it is a relationship or just your friends, you care about them so much that you wish them the best in life and their own journeys. This is the purest form of happiness. When two individuals will do anything to make sure the other person is happy and you are as well, it is an unspoken agreement. Happiness may come and go like seasons but, in the end, every moment you have that is filled with happiness will be well worth the unhappy and happy times that you have once endured. Think of those times as milestones in your life. Those little times of being happy or sad are bringing you to the bigger picture in your life. Remember that happiness is a gift that can be and should be shared with everyone. Sure buying things can make you feel amazing for a couple of days or even hours but, in the end you will find greater / true happiness in the little, simplest everyday things that life offers.

Short and Quick Activities for the ESL Classroom

Short and Quick Activities for the ESL Classroom All teachers are probably familiar with this situation: Its five minutes before your next class is going to begin and you really dont know what to do. Or maybe this situation is familiar; youve finished your lesson and there are still ten minutes left to go. These short, helpful activities can be used in those situations when you could use a good idea to help get the class started, or fill those inevitable gaps. 3 Favorite Short Classroom Activities My Friend...? I like to draw a picture of a man or a woman on the board. This usually gets a few laughs as my drawing skills leave quite a lot to be desired. Anyway, the point of this exercise is that you ask students questions about this mystery person. Begin with: What is his / her name? and go from there. The only rule that applies is that students have to pay attention to what other students say so that they can give reasonable answers based on what other students have said. This is a great little exercise to review tenses. The crazier the story becomes the better, and more communicative, the activity is for the students. Short Topic Writing The idea of this exercise is to get students to quickly write about a topic they choose (or you assign). These short presentations are then used in two manners; to generate spontaneous conversations on a wide range of topics, and to take a look at some common writing problems. Use the following subjects and ask students to write a paragraph or two about a subject they choose, give them about five to ten minutes to write: The best thing to happen to me todayThe worst thing to happen to me todaySomething funny that happened to me this weekWhat I really hate!What I really like!My favorite thingA surprise I hadA landscapeA buildingA monumentA museumA memory from childhoodMy best friendMy boss Music Description Choose a short piece or excerpt of music you like (I prefer something by the French composers Ravel or Debussy) and tell the students to relax and listen to the music. Tell them to let their imaginations run free. After you have listened to the piece twice, ask them to describe what they were thinking about or what they imagined while they were listening to the music. Ask them why they had those particular thoughts.

Characterize Phaedra in terms of her sense of morality essays

Characterize Phaedra in terms of her sense of morality essays We often think of morality in terms of right versus wrong or good versus evil. If a person chooses wisely and makes good decisions, they have morals, but if a person is evil then they have no sense of morality. Phaedras situation is complicated and cannot easily be characterized in terms of good versus evil. While she knows it is wrong to love her stepson and tries to hide these feelings, she makes bad decisions during the course of the play which eventually lead to her death, and the death of Hippolytus. Although Phaedra is a good person and knows right from wrong, her sense of morality does come into question which unfortunately produces a terrible outcome. If a person knows right from wrong, yet still cannot control their urges or impulses, this doesnt necessarily make them evil or lacking morals, as in the case of Phaedra. Phaedra is married to Theseus, yet is in love with his son Hippolytus. Very early on in the play we can see that Phaedra is tormented by this love and knows it is wrong. In order to prevent herself from acting on these feelings, she has Hippolytus banished from their kingdom. O heavy weight of misery! My eyes beheld the son in the fathers countenance. At length I dared to rebel against myself. I spurred my spirit to persecute him, striving thus to banish the enemy I worship by assuming a stepmothers proverbial cruelty. I clamored for his exile till my cries tore my dear enemy from his fathers arms (1473). I have a just abhorrence of my crime; I hate my life, abominate my lust; longing by death to rescue my good name and hide my black love from the light of day (1473). Although banishing Hippolytus from the kingdom is not the act of someone we would consider to have great morals, Phaedra knows this is the only way to hide her secret. She feels she is doing what is best for everyone involved, thus showing that she is not an evil person. When t...

Reasons for Investing in HSBC HOLDING PLC Essay - 1

Reasons for Investing in HSBC HOLDING PLC - Essay Example It is branded world’s number 1 in the provision of various services and products to many customers. HSBC helps their customers in investigating emotional attitudes in matters related to financial markets and telling them the importance of investing in long-term. They also provide share services online for those investors who are interested in their own portfolio management. HSBC has a range of investments, life insurance, and savings opportunities, which can be applied online for experts (Chandra, 2008). By 2009, this company was rated amongst the largest group of banks and the sixth largest in the world according to the measure of the Forbes magazine. Hong Kong used to be its headquarters up to 1992 when there was an urgent need due to the force that was eminent by then to move to the UK as a state of completion of acquiring Midland bank. Presently, there is no area in the world that dominates the earnings made by this group. Hong Kong is still HSBC’s substantial incom e source. The recent expansion and acquiring of HSBC roots in China have increased their customer confidence and reason to invest in them. This banking company has established itself well and widely in its operational base in the world. This company has its major points on such services as an investment, lending, and provision of insurance services globally. HSBC bank as a company of the HSBC group is internationally recognized as a bank and a provider of financial services. It offers a stream of services related to finance and serves to diversify customers across the world in four groups of customers and worldwide business, namely commercial banking, financial services that are personal, private banking and global markets and banking. The group in general and the bank in particular, cater for a wide range of services such as commercial, personal, institutional and corporate, private banking and investment by clients. This company carries out its operation across the border in the U K, Asia, America, Africa, and in the Middle East.

Nursing ethics and law Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Nursing ethics and law - Case Study Example However, it is not absolute and may be subject to some limitations as far as allowed by the law and Australian Code of Ethics. In the case study at hand, Maria Garza, a nurse practitioner, is faced with a dilemma relating to this aspect of ethical and legal question. She has a young teen, 15 years, who happens to have become pregnant but would not wish to have her mother, among other people, informed of her status. However, the teenager is equally helpless in the sense that she does not know what she would do about her pregnancy and may need to rely on the mother later, more so when the pregnancy complications sets in. The mother on the other hand appears to have taken note of this and has complained and sought an advice from Garza what the problem could be with her daughter, considering her recent frequent nausea and tiredness. Her mother comes in when the nurse is having a session with the daughter, during which she discloses her suspicion and worries to the nurse. 1.1 Main Issue T he main issue in this case is whether or not to conceal and not to disclose the information about a client (patient) that comes into the knowledge of a nurse in the course of her professional attendance to the client. ... The procedure of delivering the chosen course of action, so that neither the mother nor the daughter is harmed also becomes an issue. 1.2 Legal/Ethical Significant Considerations in the Case A number of ethical and moral considerations come into play in this case. Given that the nurse came to learn of Sandy’s pregnancy in the course of her professional duty, it is imperative as a matter of the law and ethics that she keeps it secret and confidential. As already pointed out, disclosing details of the client without the client’s consent or when the law has not permitted is inconsistent with the fundamental duty of confidentiality owed by a nurse to the patient (client). As a duty of the nurse, the correlative of it is that it translates into a right of the client. The Privacy Act (1988) provides that all personal information pertaining to an individual must be kept in trust and not revealed to third parties. In this case, Sandy’s mother may be viewed as a third par ty. Breach of this duty may be actionable in law. However, under the Privacy Act (1988), the duty of confidentiality and safeguard of privacy by those holding private information is not absolute. A professional or any other entity holding the information may disclose it if it is consistent with the purpose for which the information is primarily held or for the secondary related purposes or where the holder of the information is under a legal duty to make such disclosures. In this case, the essence of digging out Sandy’s health complication was to find out how best to have her medical conditions attended to. Given that her low haemoglobin level is attributed to her pregnancy, her parents will have to